Social Construction of Gender

Introduction to Gender

Introduction

A. In social science, the distinction between the biological and cultural aspects of being male or female is important.

B. Sex is biological: refer to male or female

C. Gender is the social and classification of masculine and feminine

D. When Anthropologists speak of “gender” they mean any culture’s expectation for those classified as men and women and what it means to be masculine or feminine in that particular culture.

I. CROSS-CULTURAL OBSERVATIONS ABOUT GENDER.

A. All cultures recognize distinctions between male and female but each culture differs in:

1. the meaning attached to these categories

2. the source of the difference between them, and

3. the relationship between sex and other cultural/social facts

B. All Cultures recognize 2 sexes: male and female and 2 genders masculine and feminine, but some cultures recognize other sexes and genders

II. THE CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER

A. In 1930’s Anthropologist Margaret Mead challenged biological determinism. She organized research around one question: Are the characteristics defined as masculine and feminine in western culture universal.

B. Her studies of three New Guinea groups revealed masculine and feminine roles and temperament were cultural patters.

1. Arapesh men and women were expected to act in ways Americans considered “naturally feminine.”

2. In Mundugamor society, both sexes were what American culture would call “masculine.”

3. Among the Tchambuli, personalities of men and women were opposite to American conceptions of masculine and feminine: women were practical in business; men were decorative and sensitive.

III. ALTERNATIVE SEXES, ALTERNATIVES GENDERS

A. Some cultures recognize more than 2 sexes, more than 2 genders; and heterosexuality and homosexuality may have different definitions.

1. Among the Igbo of Nigeria either sex fills male gender roles.

2. Woman-woman marriage continues in more than 30 African groups despite missionary disapproval; these relationships are not sexual.

a. in woman/woman marriages, the female husband takes on a variety of economic and social gender roles depending on the culture

3. Alternate genders, i.e., neither man or woman) are the Xanith of Oman, the Hijras, of India, and the Two-Spirit Role, in Native America.

a. Hijras, are emasculated through surgery; they adopt female behavior and dress; their subculture is partly a religious cult and have a place in Indian society as they perform at lifecycle ceremonies, i.e., marriages and births.

b. Two-Spirit role took different forms in different tribes and different value in different tribes.

c. Two-Spirit role usually refers to a man who dressed as a woman, engaged in man’s work and has supernatural powers.

d. The French term berache, used by European explorers and missionaries, means male homosexual prostitute. However, the terms reflect European rather than indigenous associations with crossing dressing and identifying sexual object choice with gender identity.

IV. CULTURAL VARIATION IN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

A. Cultures vary I their definition of appropriate sexual behavior.

1. Sexual activity is generally regarded as “doing what comes naturally,” yet every aspect of sexual activity is patterned by culture and influenced by learning.

Cultural patterns include

a. how people treat different body parts.

b. what is considered erotic behavior and what is disgusting.

c. acts of foreplay

2. Appropriate sexual partners vary in different societies. Homosexuality may be forbidden, approved, ignored or be obligatory, as it is among the Sambia of New

Guinea.

a. Among the Sambia, girls are viewed as “naturally” growing into woman, i.e., menstruation.

b. The Sambia believe that “women are born.”

c. The Sambia believes that the “menstrual blood” grows girls into women— filling out their bodies and making them capable of pregnancy and childbirth.

d. Since men have no such “blood”, The Sambia believe that men must be made. In other words, men are made not born.

e. Masculinity is constructed in a ritual; this contrasts sharply with Western notions that femininity and masculinity have strong biological components.

f. The Sambia, like other New Guinea societies have a high degree of sex segregation and hostility between the sexes enforces by powerful taboos.

g. Males and females live in separate houses. Between 7 and 10, young boys are taken from their mothers and live with their fathers and other male kin.

h. Sambian males are “grown” in men through a series of male initiation rituals beginning once they enter the male house.

i. The ritual entails the obligatory homosexuality, i.e. the ingesting of semen, which according to the Sambia, is necessary so that “maleness” grows.

V. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR AND IDEOLOGY: A CROSS CULTURAL COMPARISON.

A. The Irish of Inis Beag and the Polynesians of Mangaia clearly show the role of culture in sexuality.

B. The sexually repressed Inis Beag regards all aspects of sex negatively.

C. Although in Mangaia, sexual intercourse is a major interest in life, it is unacceptable conduct for boys and girls to be seen in public.

D. Values and physical responses of both people are learned as this section clearly demonstrates.

VI. THE CONSTRUCTION OF MASCULINITY IN SPAIN

A. In the Andalusian region of Spain, control of female sexuality is central to the construction of masculinity.

B. The view that women are lustful, seductresses and “whores” possessed of insatiable sexual appetites is justified with reference to Christian scripture.

C. Medieval beliefs in women’s ability to overpower and weaken men through their sexuality are given a contemporary twist by informants who claim women make sexual demands that drive men to their premature death so they live off their husbands’ entire social security benefits.

D. The cultural construction of manhood in San Blas (Southern Spain) opposes that of women.

1. Space has gender: women belong to the home; men to the streets, bars and public spaces

2. Men, fearful that their wives will be unfaithful and dishonor the family, adhere to an image of manliness constituted by aggressive sexuality.

COMPLIMENT?

We've all heard the comments about "women drivers," "dumb blondes," and "she's PMSing." Each is a subtle put-down of women and their abilities, intelligence, and emotional stability. Most of us shrug off these insults because they're so commonplace. But once in a while, you hear someone say something about women that makes your blood boil. What are the rudest, nastiest, most sexist comments about women you've heard, either personally or through the media? Why did it bother you, and what did you think of the person who said it? Share Your Experiences

A Compliment?
A male friend was once telling me about his new girlfriend and how much he liked her, and said, "It's been a long time since I've thought of a woman as anything more than a receptacle for my penis." He meant it as a compliment. We are no longer friends because of that and other similarly offensive comments.
—DorisLin

Woman to woman comment
When I was at the USAF Academy, I had a woman teammate on the fencing team that disliked (in the extreme) another femaie teammate. She described the object or her dislike thusly: "She is half of a dripping c*nt. Want to know why? Because half is useless!"
—Guest USAFA Cadet

Oh, yes he did...
I've had a left-side, then later, a right-side mastectomy. Someone who claimed to love me called me a "no titty bitch." I don't think about it too much anymore... since I sent him to state prison for stealing from me.
—Guest P

The light bulb joke
Q: How many feminists does it take to change a light bulb? A: Trick question. Feminists can't change anything.
—Guest the truth

Attitude not Words
While words have a cumulative effect, the real impact comes from the attitude of the speaker. Normally derogatory words may be used in a joking manner among persons who respect one another on occasion, and it words both ways However, the cumulative effect must be remembered even where the intent is not negative. The best course is to eschew these comments.
—Guest Jocko

Dependent
Name calling is hurtful. Physical abuse would be merciful in comparison. Had beatings as long as I can remember not by him. He's NEVER hit me. I thought he would be my hero. What I have is shelter with a dirty OLD man with a vile mouth, who needs viagra to be a man. I have no home or place to go. I am not allowed to buy anything of value without his consent. No place to go,no money,no credit. what can I do? I need help and a friend to confide in.
—Guest Imbecile

Vacuum in their head
Women have so many lower body openings that the only thing that keeps their insides from dropping out is the vacuum in their head.
—Guest bejammin

Girls Are "Trouble"?
One of the comments about our sex that really upsets me is the belief that girls are "trouble." Usually, that is cited as the reason that many people prefer boys over girls. Unfortunately, I have a couple of aunts who feel exactly that way, which I find pretty ironic coming from them since THEY used to be girls themselves. Neither one of them wanted girls; they wanted only boys. Well, they got the boys they wanted, but that comment still upsets me because it says that we are not wanted here and are nothing but trouble. It also makes us feel inferior and unworthy. If we women and girls are "trouble," then why did God put us here?
—vero2244

tasteless Hillary Clinton joke
An old Esquire article contained one of the rudest comments I've ever heard about a woman -- the Hillary Clinton joke : Question: What's the Hillary Clinton KFC special? Answer: Two small breasts, two large thighs, and two left wings. You'd never hear that kind of slur made against a man.
—Guest Hillary voter

Cougar term took wind out of my sails
I hadn't been out to our local 80's dance night in a while. The Wednesday night tradition has been going on since at least 2000 and is still a hit, with young hipsters dancing right along with soccer moms and even redneck jocks. A very positive fun thing always and I used to go regularly. I happened to speak to a man I know just before going out, and he said, "Oh, going to get your cougar on?" I know he probably just felt left out or old himself, but wow did it make me mad and take the wind out of my sails. I hate that term. Because of that, I danced happily with every man on the floor regardless of age.
—laylamom

Ugh..
I am 13 and allready a very strong believer in feminine strength. As Marilyn Monroe said, "Any woman who has the dream to be equal to a man has a lack of ambition" I have found that the worst comments have been simple things such as " You're a girl! You can't do that!!!" or "Stand back, Barbie, let a GUY do this!" One day these arrogant self-worshiping pigs will get socked by "Barbie." Let's see who can do more THEN...
—Guest IamwhoIam, a girl

'Marital Piss'
Heard a shocker from a male. He called intercourse the "marital piss." Charming.
—Guest gorillagal

Drunk, really?
Often, guys take advantage of women who are drunk--more so most of their friends. I have a friend once who got so drunk she was almost tumbling on her own foot. This guy was trying to kiss her and the amazing thing was, she puked ON THE GUY!! Good for him. Every time I see him I can't help but laugh and remember.
—Guest Jhenni

Self-Doubt
Often when I tell women I'm an economist, they shrug it off with the self-deprecating comment "I can't learn about the economy. It's too difficult." These are successful business-women, but somewhere they've internalized the idea that only men can understand the economy. Puh-lease! Ladies! Hasn't this recession taught us that a) we are smart enough to figure out anything and b) the economy is a game we can't afford to sit out. We're on the field whether we understand the game or not. If women took responsibility for understanding and managing the economy, the world would be a much saner, kinder and safer place. Maybe I'm being sexist, but that's my feeling. P.S. I'm sure I've heard some "nastier" comments from men over my years, but none are as damaging as the ones we've internalized. Kimberly
—US_Economy

The "C" Word
It seems the "C" word is common among men who want to harass women on the streets. This is only one of many experiences: Long ago... in my 20s a man came up to me on the streets of NYC and said, "Hey beautiful, C_NT!" I started walking as fast as I could then to get away from him...
—Guest news journalist

(source women's issues)

WELCOME

When it comes to the facts about women's lives, we don't need to focus on women's issues, do we? Nowadays, women and men are treated the same, right? Isn't the gender gap a myth? Don't women have equal rights already -- just like men? Aren't we guaranteed equal rights in the Constitution?
The answer to every single question above is 'no.'

*I am looking forward to having a great class discussion in the entire semester.